Within 5 years of their kin’s release from prison, nearly half of the population of family members will experience the same kin’s admission into prison. Likewise, the disruptions and challenges following this event will happen.

When their kin eventually gets released from prison again, as a 2nd timer, within 5 years of it, nearly half the population of these families will see the same family member entering prison for the 3rd time. Again, the challenges follow suit.

This cycle of events can go on for numerous times, a recurring pattern that spans an indefinite amount of time, sometimes till life's end.

About 80% of the inmate population are repeat offenders.

When a member of the family is an offender, the risk that the others within the family offends, increases. Criminality can be 'transmitted' to other family members, usually the siblings and/or children of the offender.

Youths with parents that have one contact with the criminal justice system have 2.17 times the risk of offending than youths whose parents have never contacted it. If contact is more than once, the risk triples to 3.4 times.

Parents with custodial sentences increase the risk of their offspring’s offending to 3.9 times.

Transmission of criminality in the family

Offspring of parents with drug offences carry an even higher risk of offending, at 5.18 times. This is likely because all drug consumption offenders have custodial sentences and as the offending class that ranks the highest in reoffending rates, they will be more than one period of being in custody, thus intensifying the negative impact of incarceration on the offspring.

Drug consumption offenders will spend a minimum period of 6 months in custody. For 2nd timers, the custodial period goes up to a year or more. 3rd timers can be put behind bars for 5 years and upwards.

Drug offenders constitute around 70% of the total inmate population.

Offspring of drug offenders at elevated risk of offending

Youths from families with high criminality are at the most risk of future offending. They constitute the class of offenders who offend at the earliest of ages and will reoffend. 

They are likely to become adult offenders as they carry these tendencies with them across the age threshold in just a few short years. Considering their early involvement in crime, they tend to attract harsher sentencing outcomes, which can enmesh them in the cycle of reoffending as did their predecessors.

When they have children of their own, transmission of offending to the next generation can repeat in the family. This further entrenches the family line in their predicament, giving rise to multiple generations of offenders in the family line.

Inter-generational criminality

A custodial sentence disrupts familial bonds.

Extended separation does not bode well for parent-child bonds and most importantly, the foundational wellbeing of the child.

When the mother is separated from the child in developmental years, the entire life of the child is disrupted, with all sorts of negative outcomes. If it is the father, the disruption is still very substantial, because of the absence of the unique attributes a father brings about. The pressure of single-handedly raising of the child for the other parent contributes to the disruption for the child.

Dissolution of bonds can also come about due to desiring a separation from the family member who is in conflict with the law. Parents, siblings and spouses could initiate the cessation of contact. Where children are involved, since they are usually in the care of these parties, contact will cease or reduce to a minimum at best.

Preventing contact with the parent who is an offender is often thought to be in the best interests of the child because it puts an end to the perceived unwholesome influence the parent exerts on the child and the dysfunctional childhood they have caused.

But is that really so?

Collateral damage of imprisonment

Separating parent and child appears to be more detrimental than the negative influence upon the child from a parent is an offender, as long as the parent is not a threat to the safety and wellbeing of the child, ie. not physically or sexually abusive to the child.

When youths with parents in criminality do not concurrently experience poor parenting, and marital conflict and/or divorce/separation which gives rise to single-household family structures, their risk of offending is found to be low.

Good parent-child bonds as protective factor

Therefore parental criminality should not be the only factor in deciding to terminate the parent-child relationship, especially when there is co-occurring parent separation or divorce. Their desire to break free from the undesirable situation brought about by the other parent's entanglement with the law, may just pull them in deeper with the child's high risk of offending, forcing them to have to deal with it in the next generation.

Poorly managed families with no criminality as a high risk factor

Youths with high risk of offending are not limited to families with high criminality. Poorly managed homes where parents have no criminality are as detrimental to youths in terms of future criminality. These youths have similarly high risk of offending as youths from high criminality families.

Poorly managed homes have traits of very poor parenting such as inadequate parental supervision, inappropriate discipline, difficulty of parent to control behaviour, hostile and distant parent–child relations.

Youths with very poor parenting and youths from high criminality families have other similarities. They are of the earliest ages at 1st offence and have high reoffending rates. They are also likely to come from non-intact homes, featuring marital conflict and single-parent households.

Parental presence and guidance, and family cohesiveness cannot be overemphasized. Good parenting practices and close parent-child relationships function as protective factors for youths at risk.

Therefore those who endeavour better outcomes for the youths in the family should focus on strengthening the youths' relationships with both parents, working on marital relationships and fostering a harmonious home environment.

Protecting youths at risk